Executive function at the beginning of kindergarten, under fully adjusted models
| Cognitive flexibility | Working memory | |
|---|---|---|
| M3R/M3S | M3R/M3S | |
| Black | -0.240*** (0.057) |
-0.291*** (0.048) |
| Hispanic ELL | -0.077 (0.094) |
-0.361*** (0.086) |
| Hispanic English | -0.079** (0.039) |
-0.167*** (0.038) |
| Asian | -0.038 (0.060) |
-0.015 (0.067) |
| Other | -0.090** (0.044) |
0.047 (0.050) |
| Low-middle SES | 0.098** (0.049) |
0.101*** (0.037) |
| Middle SES | 0.192*** (0.051) |
0.259*** (0.041) |
| High-middle SES | 0.182*** (0.051) |
0.416*** (0.043) |
| High SES | 0.254*** (0.051) |
0.513*** (0.045) |
| Girl | 0.055*** (0.021) |
0.023 (0.021) |
| Age of student | 0.012*** (0.003) |
-0.060*** (0.003) |
| Has a disability | -0.198*** (0.029) |
-0.280*** (0.027) |
| Language at home is not English | -0.180** (0.072) |
-0.014 (0.073) |
| Not living with two parents | 0.006 (0.029) |
-0.042 (0.027) |
| Number of siblings | 0.008 (0.011) |
-0.023** (0.009) |
| Immigrant | -0.036 (0.035) |
-0.043 (0.036) |
| Center-based pre-K | 0.012 (0.022) |
0.032 (0.022) |
| Enrichment activities with parents | 0.044** (0.021) |
0.073*** (0.020) |
| Constant | -0.868*** (0.198) |
4.064*** (0.191) |
| Observations | 10,220 | 9,570 |
| Adj.R2 | 0.0974 | 0.255 |
Note: Robust standard errors are in parentheses. For statistical significance, *** denotes p<0.01, ** denotes p<0.05, and * denotes p<0.1. The number of observations is rounded to the nearest multiple of 10. ELL stands for English-language learner. English refers to English-language speaker. SES refers to socioeconomic status. See Appendix A.
Source: EPI analysis of ECLS-K, Kindergarten Class of 2010-2011 (National Center for Education Statistics)